Runes 101 - Runes in History - Runemasters

Earlier this month, I was doing some research looking for information around what a runemaster was and came across a quote that I had not seen before.  This quote turned up in a few places and it's as if the phrase and the wording around it were just copied and pasted onto multiple websites:

Let no man carve runes to cast a spell, save first he learn to read them well.

I couldn't find the original source, though every website where I found this quote credited a "viking poet".  I wanted some context for it.  While I recognize that many ancient authors (writers of all kinds) are unknown, what I was searching for was the rest of the poem or the item on which it was carved, anything that would offer more insight into this statement.

I was intrigued by the wording, because it appears to address what it meant to be a rune master - one must know how to read the runes well first.  Once they master that, then they may carve runes.  Perhaps the most interesting part is the bit about casting spells.  This implies that runemasters did spell work, but Wikipedia, for example, states that "a runemaster is someone who specializes in making runestones".  It did not include spell work or casting runes.

Who were the ancient runemasters?  Were they stonemasons, poets, spell casters, healers, readers of the Runes or some combination of these roles?

Were they men or women or both?  Many of the websites I investigated said that runemasters were usually women (but they provided no citation). Tacitus, on the other hand, claimed it was the local priest (chieftain) or the father of the family who read the runes, and other sites state that with few exceptions (e.g., seidr witches), men dominated rune magic.

The term runemaster seems to be a moderately new addition to our language, according to Webster's Dictionary, where a runemaster is defined as a maker of runes, a magician, with Odin being the greatest runemaster of the ancient Germanic world.  Webster also says that the first known use of the term was in 1869.

Confused?  Let me summarize what I believe to be the most accurate or likely interpretation.  If you read my blog with any regularity, you know that I lean strongly toward factual information when it comes to understanding the history in which Runes were used.  For that reason and because of my own research into what life was like before and during the Viking Age, I believe that men did dominate rune work/magic/runestones.  I don't believe they were called runemasters.  I'm not sure we can ever know who or what a runemaster really was or was called a thousand year ago.

This little foray into the term runemaster opens the door for more posts on the subject.  Look for one or two of those later this year.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - The Blank Rune

Occasionally, I am asked about the blank Rune.  Is it a thing?  What does it mean?  Should I use it?

The simple answer to the latter question in my view is no, but the real answer is more complex than that and has to do with historical facts, which I can explain by addressing the other two questions.

Is the blank Rune a thing?  Yes and no.  Yes the blank Rune is a thing, but only since the 1970s at the earliest.  Is the blank Rune a thing in the Elder Futhark or any of the other furtharks?  No.  There is no evidence in the eddas, sagas or any other relative historical documents that even suggest that such a thing existed.

The first mention of a blank Rune comes in Ralph Blume's 1982, "The Book of Runes".  This is where the controversy around the blank Rune begins.  So, let's talk about Blum's take on it.

Blum refers to the blank Rune as "the unknowable", "the Divine, Odin, the Allfather".  Both of these descriptions are entirely inaccurate.

The unknowable.  The whole point of Odin sacrificing himself to himself was to gain the knowledge of the Runes.  So, the idea that there would be a Rune that represents the unknowable goes against Odin's actions.

Old Icelandic Rune Poem for Óss

The Divine, Odin, the Allfather.  All Runes are linked to Odin, because of his sacrifice to gain their knowledge.  If there is a single Rune associated with him, it would be Ansuz, and I say that only because the Old Icelandic Rune Poem refers to Óss (the Younger Futhark) as god (Odin) is progenitor, Asgard's chief, and Valhalla's lord.

I won't even venture into his detailed explanation of the meaning of the blank Rune, where he gives no less than eight different things that it represents.  It further demonstrates his lack of understanding of the cultural history in which the original use of Runes formed.

For those of you who aren't so concerned about the blank Rune's complete disregard for the historical and mythological contexts, consider this simple point.  The Runes are an alphabet.  The term "Futhark" is literally the word formed by the first six letters:

To suggest that an alphabet would have a blank in it is ridiculous.  It would be a non-letter.

So, yes the blank Rune is a thing, a very recent thing.  Should it be used when seeking guidance from the Runes as an oracle?  No.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - Blekinge Sweden

Of all the places in Sweden that have Runestones, why should I choose Blekinge, in the southeastern part of the country on the Baltic sea?  I mean it has only three Runestones of the roughly 2,000 that are in Sweden.  However, these three share a few similarities.  The are all dated to between the years 500-790; they were all carved in a Proto-Norse version of Runes, which were used during the transition from the Elder to Younger Futhark; and, they are linked to the same tribe.  I believe they are all also designated to the same clan.

Blekinge used to have four Runestones, but one - the Gummarp Runestone - was destroyed in the 1728 Copenhagen Fire that burned almost half of the older section of the city.  The interpretation of these Runes comes down to two options - Haþuwulfar carves them for himself or they were carved in his memory.  Either way, three staves were carved for him - fff.

Fehu, Fehu, Fehu - wealth, wealth, wealth

Istaby Runestone

Haþuwulfar also appears on the Istaby Runestone.  Here, Haþuwulfar refers to himself as Heruwulfar's son and he is paying tribute in memory of Hariwulfar.

The names are what make this Runstone so interesting.  As you may have surmised, 'wulf' means 'wolf'.  'Hari' and 'Haþu' mean 'warrior' and 'battle' respectively.  The warrior wolf and battle wolf are part of a larger clan that may have incorporated wolves or the idea that wolves are a pack or family into rituals and religious ceremonies to initiate young warriors into the fold.

To see this Runestone, you need to visit Stockholm as it resides in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.

The Third Runestone is where things start to get really interesting, because this is where the curses come in.  Lying face down, surrounded by five other stones that formed a pentagon, the Stentoften Runestone was discovered in 1823.  In 1864, it was moved to the church of Sölvesborg.

Stentoften Runestone

The carving on this stone talks about how dwellers and guests [of]  Haþuwulfar had a bountiful harvest.  In part, this carving uses the Younger Futhark version of Jera to represent the harvest.  There are other Runes on this stone, like Kenaz, that are in the transitional form from the Elder to Younger Futhark.

An animal sacrifice occurred either to help with the good bounty or to give thanks for it.  This part is unclear.

You should also be warned that, "I, master of the runes(?) conceal here, runes of power, incessantly (plagued by) maleficence, (doomed to) insidious death (is) he who this breaks."  So, I highly advise that you don't break it.

Björketorp Runestone

The only one of Blekinge's Runestones that still resides in its original location is the Björketorp Runestone, located east of Ronneby off of E22.  One of the tallest Runestones in the world, it forms a circle with two other large stones called menhirs, because nothing is carved on them.

One of the lines on the stone matches almost exactly, in words, the line from Stentoften.  However, scholars say that the two stones were not carved by the same runemaster.  It says, "I, master of the runes(?) conceal here runes of power. Incessantly (plagued by) maleficence, (doomed to) insidious death (is) he who breaks this (monument)."  This stone, however, goes one step further, including a prophesy of destruction.

Scholars have put forth a host of potential meanings for these stones.  The one I like is the notion that these Runestones marked a border between different clans, possibly Swedes and Danes.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - The Faroese Stones

Translated carving on the Sandavágur Stone

It's always hard for me to accept that Iceland has no Runestones.  None.  Not any.  However, it does bring me some solace to know that the tiny Faroe Islands, with a population of just over 50,000, has three of them - the Sandavágur Stone (discovered 1917), the Kirkjubøur Stone (discovered 1832), and the Fámjin Stone (discovery date unclear).

Although they were all originally housed in churches with the same name as the stones, at least one reference said that they are all housed in the Faroese National Museum in Tórshavn, though I think that may be the case only for the Kirkjubøur Stone.

What is most interesting to me about these stones is the age range among them.  The Kirkjubøur Stone is the oldest, dating from the Viking Age (between the 8th and 11th centuries).  The Sandavágur Stone is next from the 13th century, while the Fámjin Stone is about 300 years younger dated to the middle/end of the 16th century.  That demonstrates Rune usage well into the Middle Ages.

The Fámjin Stone has Roman letters on it in addition to the Runes, but given how young it is, that is not so surprising.  Still, I couldn't find what was carved on the stone.

The oldest of the stones, the Kirkjubøur Stone, says something about peace being granted to someone named Vígulf.  Although I couldn't find a picture of the stone itself, the Runic carving appears on a stamp.  It's in the background and and image of the Sandavágur Stone is in the front.

The Sandavágur Stone also has the most complete inscription.  It refers to Thorkell Onundarson,claiming that he was the first to build there.  The impression seems to be that he was the first permanent settler at least in the Sandavágur area.

Researching these stones left me convinced that I need to put the Faroe Islands on my list of places to visit so that I can see them for myself and share more about them.  If you've been there and have pictures, you're willing to share, please let me know.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - The Vang Stone

Image from Wikipedia

The Vang Stone is a Runestone located in the central part of southern Norway. Although its runic inscription follows a fairly standard wording – someone has erected the stone in honor or memory of someone else – I am not sure if the stone was erected for the carvers' nephew or cousin.  In my research, I found both. The actual wording is interpreted as:  Gasa's sons erected (cut or carved) this stone in memory of Gunnar, their nephew/cousin.  But, this is only one aspect of the Vang Stone.

Vang Stone inscription

Of the roughly 3,000 Runestones in Scandinavia, Sweden hosts the vast majority of them.  There are none in Iceland, around 250 in Denmark, and Norway comes in with 50. Of course, other areas of the world also tout a runestone or runic carving (for example, Italy has the Pireaus Lion, there are some in the UK, including the Manx Crosses on the Isle of Man, even Greenland has one.)  So, this special stone is one of Norway's 50 and what makes it interesting is that the Vang Stone has some really fascinating features all based on location.

Changing location.  The Vang Stone was erected right around the time of the conversion to Christianity in Scandinavia (around the year 1000) and located originally near a stave church; and there it sat for more than 800 years.  When the stave church was taken apart and reassembled in Germany in 1844, the Vang Stone was also moved to the Vang Church and it still resides there.

Geographic location. On a larger scale, the Vang Stone lies just to the north of the Ringerike District of Norway, the area which is responsible for the ornate carving style on the Vang Stone's face, called the Ringerike style.  The design is topped off by a stylized lion with two small shells at the bottom.  In between are gently-curved swirls that crisscross in the middle. The top part of the crisscross appears a bit more symmetrical, though not entirely, than the lower portion.

Inscription location.  On a much smaller scale, the stone itself is different from most other stones, because its runic engraving runs along the side of the stone.  It is not above, below or integrated into the picture and design on the stone's face.  I tried to highlight (in the image to the left) the cut Runes that run along right side of the stone as you look at its face, but if you want a better view, I did find a reasonable image online. (Click to see the Vang Stone image.)  The location of the Runes on the stone is quite intriguing to me.  I can't help but wonder if carving them on the side was an intentional piece of the stone design so as not to take away from the carving on the front or if Gasa's sons simply forgot to leave space, so had no choice but to cut the Runes along the stone's side.

The Vang Stone is a good example of the importance of location, location, location.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - Tacitus

Runes cast on a white cloth

When I am asked how I can justify Rune casting for divination as an historical part of honoring or worshiping Norse Gods, my simple answer is that I don't.

The reason I don't is twofold.  First, I don't feel the need to justify the ways that I connect with my goddesses and gods to anyone.  Second, I never claimed that this was an ancient approach, though there tends to be this automatic assumption that I believe it to be so.

I am not a purist nor do I try to be.  Moreover, I struggle with the idea that I have to be one, because I disagree with the notion that a strict adherence to how I express my connection to the Norse goddesses and gods exists. More specifically, I disagree with the idea that, if I am doing something that isn't accepted as being from ancient times, I am wrong.  With regard to the Runes, what works for me is a simple acknowledgement that what I am doing is most assuredly not the exact way it was done in the past, rather that what I do is done from a position of respect.

Comments by Tacitus in his book Germania foster the situation.  It is the only known historical reference about casting by Germanic people and there are numerous translations of his description of it.  Still, however one translates Tacitus' writing, there is no mention of Runes, only of "cutting marks" into twigs cut from a fruit-bearing tree.  We don't know what the marks were or how they were interpreted.

What is especially interesting about Tacitus' explanation is that it has to be secondhand, because he doesn't appear to have traveled to Germania himself.  This might help explain the lack of detail in the casting description.

The idea that the marks might be some form of Runes is also brought into question by the fact that Tacitus lived from 56CE (CE = common era) to about 117CE, while the earliest runic inscriptions date to around 250CE.  That is not to say that the marks absolutely were not Runes, but it does reduce the likelihood significantly.  Then, there is the question of which Futhark was used or should be used.  Elder?  Younger?  Anglo-Saxon?  I don't think there is a right or wrong choice.

What do I take from Tacitus?  I take facts.  Some portion of Germanic people placed a high importance on divination.  To divine whatever answers they sought, they cut sticks from fruit-bearing trees and carved marks into them.  They threw the sticks onto a white cloth.  Someone of authority would invoke the gods, pick up three of the sticks, and interpret them.  If the interpretation was disagreeable, they wouldn't ask about it anymore that day.  If it was agreeable, they still required a sign of some sort to confirm it.

I incorporate many of these facts into my own practice and I am grateful that Tacitus gave us some insight into the ancient process.  However, I also recognize that the interpretations I make of the Runes I cast are based on the Rune Poems (composed in the 8th or 9th century) and that no other evidence for using Runes for divination can be found prior to the 1970s.  It would be wrong for me to say that my practice is based solely on historical ritual.  However, it would also be wrong to say it is an entirely new age thing.  Tacitus provides pieces, the Rune poems provide pieces, and information since the 1970s also provides pieces.

What's most important is that I do not take what I do lightly and I don't expect anyone else to use the Runes the exact same way that I do.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - Maeshowe, Orkney

Orkney: Maeshowe neolithic chambered cairn and passage grave*

There can be no question about the reach of the Vikings during the roughly 300-year period named after them - the Viking Age (~790-1066).  Reaching Asia in the east and North America in the west, Vikings were the greatest navigators and explorers of their time.  They affected life and culture wherever they went, leaving behind evidence of their impact as grand as cities they founded and as simple as runic graffiti they carved.

Just over a year ago,  I provided an overview of some graffiti on the Piraeus Lion in Italy, carvings which were rather elaborate.  Much closer to the Viking homelands, however, lies one of the largest known groups of runic graffiti.

At the end of 1999, on mainland Orkney,  a UNESCO World Heritage Site was named and includes four neolithic structures - the Standing Stones of Stenness, Skara Brae (a neolithic village), the Ring of Brodger, and Maeshowe (pictured above).

However, Maeshowe is not famous just because of its age or its interior chambers and passages.  It is also home to at least 30 runic inscriptions, carved between the ninth and twelfth centuries.

These 30 inscriptions include at least one set of the Norwegian (Younger) Futhark, several common statements such as Vermunt carved (these runes) or Tryggr carved these Runes.  Some inscriptions mention women (Ingbjork the fair widow, for example), while others inform us about some of the men who broke into the cairn and carved the Runes on the walls.  They were crusaders and may have been in search of treasure or, at least, were aware that the cairn once contained treasure that had long since been taken, well before the Rune carvers showed up.

In addition to the Runes, there is also a worm knot and  very ornately carved dragon, which has become a common and recognizable Orkney symbol, appearing on T-shirts, jewelry, and even malt whiskey.  If you search online for images of the Orkney dragon, I guarantee you will see plenty of examples of it.  For now, here are a couple of links to sites that provide more images of and information about the Maeshowe Runic inscriptions:

The Project Gutenburg eBook

Orkneyjar

*Image from 123rf.com, photographer Juliane Jacobs

Runes 101 - Runes in Mythology - The Saga of the Volsungs

Two weeks ago, I reviewed Jesse Byock's translation of The Saga of the Volsungs and I promised to come back to it to talk about the appearance of Runes in the story.  The Runes actually play two important parts in the story, though their first mention is merely the statement that Regin, Sigurd's foster father, taught Sigurd the Runes.

However, I note this not only because it is the first time we see the Runes in the story, but also because Byock points out (reminds us) in his own notes in the book that Runes "had both practical and magical uses."  In fact, this story presents both aspects of the Runes and that is where I want to focus.

In chapter 21, Brynhild shares her knowledge of the Runes with Sigurd.  She recites 14 verses that include at least six types of Runes as noted in the list to the right.

Brynhild's expression of the Runes presents their magical side and talks of spells and how to use them properly.  Aid Runes, for instance, are used to help with child birth and she claims that they are to be cut into the mother's hand and then the Rune carver must take her hand into his/hers and "bid the Disir not to fail".

In another verse, she mentions Tyr when speaking of victory Runes and even says that they should be cut on the sword's hilt on the blade's center ridge.  She never calls this Rune Tiwaz, yet we know that Tiwaz was carved on many swords and is Tyr's Rune.  To be sure, one of the enigma's that surround the Runes is that they are not mentioned by name in many instances.

There is an exception to that in Brynhild's Rune knowledge though.  When discussing ale Runes and the goal of keeping a neighbor's wife at bay, she states that ale Runes are to be carved on your horn and the back of your hand... and Naud (Nauthiz - the need Rune) on your fingernail.  This is one of the few places where a Rune is actually named, even then, she may just be saying "the need rune", but we know that is Naud (Nauthiz).

Using the Runes for "practical" purposes, as opposed to the implied magic of Brynhild's Runes, Gudrun carves a message in Runes to warn her brothers that her husband, King Atli, plans to take Sigurd's treasure from them.  The king's messenger reads the message and changes the Runes to make it appear as though Gudrun wants her brothers to accept her husband's invitation.  With the letter Gudrun sends a ring tied with wolf's hair, which her brother, Hogni, initially sees as a warning until the messenger gives him Gudrun's note, which he altered.  Although Hogni does not recognize the changes, his wife, Kostbera does.  She can tell the Gudrun's message has been falsified.

Interestingly, the story says that Kostbera uses her wisdom to discern what the Runes truly said.  When she figures it out, she wakes her husband to tell him not to go on the trip to see King Atli.  She says:

"You cannot be very skilled at reading runes if you think your sister has asked you to come at this time.  I read the runes and wondered how so wise a woman could have carved them so confusedly.  Yet, it seems that your death is indicated underneath.  Either Gudrun missed a letter or someone else has falsified the runes."

The Saga of the Volsungs is not a happy one, but it does offer concrete examples of both uses of the Runes, along with dragon slaying, great battles, and great deceit.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc

Anglo-Saxon Futhorc

The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (ASF) possess some distinct characteristics that differentiate it from its predecessor, the Elder Futhark (EF).  Without leaping into the debate about its place of origin, I want to look at its characters (letters) and Rune poem instead.  (I should also say that the ASF names evolved and changed, but I use the EF names, unless I am referring to one of the additional ASF Runes.)

Where the EF has 24 characters, the ASF has 33.  The additional characters were created to accommodate different sounds, such as the 'ior' Rune to make the ia or io sound.  The table below compares the characters of the first 24 letters of the two futharks and shows how some of the characters in the ASF took on different shapes.  The additional ASF letters are presented in the image directly following the table.  We'll get to those shortly.  For now, let's look at the table.  The EF is presented in the lighter colored rows and the characters that have taken on different shapes in the ASF are highlighted in light squares.  Some changes are subtle, such as the slope in Uruz, which can also be depicted as a straight, slanted line; and Sowilo, where the character becomes more vertical than slanted.   Ansuz, Hagalaz, Ingwaz, and Dagaz add lines to their shapes, but the biggest changes are to Kenaz and Jera.  One other note, although I did not do it here, I've seen instances with the ASF where Dagaz and Othala switch places.  In other words, Othala comes before Dagaz.  Although I've seen them listed in this order in the EF, it seems to be a more dominate occurrence in the ASF.

Elder Futhark (light lines) and Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (dark lines)

Of course, the ASF has 9 additional Runes, beyond the 24 shown in the table.  They are depicted like this:

The additional letters of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc

Although the EF derives it meanings from the Anglo-Saxon Rune poem, the poem itself has 29 verses. Still, this means that the final four Runes in the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc have no poem verse.  Even with the four additional verses, some of the corresponding Rune meanings are still unclear.

Notice that the second of these additional Runes is identical to the EF version of Ansuz in its shape.  Despite this, it is the newer shape that has the older meaning from the poem.  It is named os and means god.  The 'new' Rune, aesc, means ash.

I listed the meaning of yr as unclear.  This is because I found it interpreted as bow, saddle, a yew, and one source left it named yr.  The final line of its verse has been interpreted in at least three different ways too, calling it war gear, army gear, and reliable equipment for a journey.  If I had to pick one, I would likely go with saddle, though I'd still be unsure.

Also unclear is cweord.  One source listed it as fire, another as a variation of Perthro, whose meaning is not entirely clear either.  Unlike yr, however, cweord does not have a Rune poem verse to aid in understanding its meaning.

It was interesting that ior is interpreted as eel, snake, and beaver by the different sources I found.  Based on the Rune poem verse, I believe beaver is the closest to the verse's meaning, but eel seems to be the most commonly used interpretation.

There is one other Rune in the image at the top of this page.  I am not sure if this is another form of chalice or spear, though it may be a regional variation.  I found it referred to as both and omitted completely from another source.  Again, there is no verse to help explain what it means.

As you can tell from every other post on this blog, I use the Elder Futhark.  Therefore, I am not entirely familiar with the ASF.  What I have attempted to give you here is the briefest of overviews of it to help distinguish some of the different characters and the simplest interpretation of their meanings.  I encourage those of you who have greater knowledge of this Futhark than I do to share your comments on this post.


Anglo-Saxon Futhorc image credit: Copyright: azzardo / 123RF Stock Photo

Runes 101 - Runes in Mythology - The Adventures of Merlin

Last week, I started watching a British fantasy show on Netflix, called The Adventures of Merlin.  Broadly based on King Arthur and Camelot, this show depicts Merlin and Prince Arthur as youth (Late teens, early twenties) and, even though Arthur's father, King Uther, has outlawed magic by penalty of death, there is still plenty of magic and mythology around, which is why this is a Runes in Mythology post.

In season 1, episode 6, a sorcerer comes to Camelot.  While I won't give away the plot, I will say this: he has a small box with him that's full of beetles which he can 'bring to life' and 'freeze' by chanting.  However, what makes the box interesting is that it has four Runes inscribed on it and looks roughly like this:

The first glance of the box caught my eye immediately and I can't tell you how many times I had to hit pause to capture just the right image of it to inspect the Runes.  Once I got it, a few realizations came to mind.

First, Othala is inverted.  Second, like Othala, the third Rune is also an 'o' Rune reversed and, as near as I can tell, from a Futhark called the Latinized or Medieval Futhark (which according to the source I found was used primarily for decoration and not actually for inscription).  Last, the first and last Runes are not etched exactly like the Elder Futhark Runes.

In fact, the 'f' Rune (Fehu) is curved and seems to derive from one of the Younger Futhark versions, while Jera is etched similar to the Elder Futhark, but not exactly, having more of a diamond shape to it, than the interlocked aspect it actually has.

I struggle with Rune usage such as this.  One one hand, I am happy to see the Runes being used and love that family and friends consult me immediately whenever they see anything the suspect is a Rune.  On the other, it bugs me that they are so confused and misrepresented, deriving from different futharks - Fehu from a younger Futhark;  Othala the Elder, but inverted; the third is an 'o' Rune from a medieval futhark; and Jera's similar depiction of the Elder, with a slightly off diamond shape.

Perhaps what struck me as being the most odd about these Runes is that they appeared in a show about Merlin and King Arthur.  I mean these tales are from England, so I would expect the Runes they use in the show to be from the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc.

Maybe I shouldn't dwell on such small details, but I can't help but feel like, in anything, if you're going to do it, you should do it as correctly as possible and this clearly isn't.  So, I'm torn - happy to see the Runes and to be able to recognize the short comings of their presentation, but disappointed in those same presentation errors.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - The Hedeby Stones

Reconstructed Viking Village at Hedeby

Though now a part of Germany, during the Viking Age, Hedeby was part of Denmark and it was a busy and crowded trading center between the 8th and 11th centuries.  Its location served basically as a crossroads between the North and Baltic Seas.

By the second half of the 11th century, Hedeby was abandoned, due largely to two major and intentional fires.  However, before its inhabitants left, Hedeby became home to four interesting Runestones.

The first two stones date to the decade of 930 and are called the Sigtrygg Runestones.  The 930s date is given to these stones, because they both mention King Gnupa, a tenth century Danish King, who was succeeded by his son, Sigtrygg, also mentioned on the stones.  It is important to note that these stones were both raised by Gnupa's wife and Sigtrygg's mother, Asfriðr.  It is common knowledge that many Viking women raised or were mentioned/honored in Runestone inscriptions; this is just one example.  One other cool tidbit about these stones is that they were not found together.  In fact, not only were they 'discovered' nearly 100 years apart (one in 1797, the other in 1887), but one was being used as part of the ramparts of Gottorf Castle in Schleswig, across the river from where Hedeby used to be.  The castle was built sometime in the mid 12th century for the local bishop.

The third Hedeby stone was raised by King Sveinn, in the early 980s to honor the memory of Skarði, who is referred to as a heimþegar.  This has been interpreted to be someone who serves a king (or other royalty) and receives gifts, such as houses, from them.  The stone claims that Skarði went west, but then died in Hedeby.  Scholars believe that this means he went west to England.  Given that King Sveinn is thought to be Sveinn Forkbeard, the 'west' being England is highly likely, since Sveinn was King of England too.  What is unclear is whether the two men traveled together and if Skarði was injured in England, but died in Hedeby or returned safely from England and then died.

Eric's Rune is the fourth and final Hedeby Runestone, raised roughly a decade after the Skarði stone.  This stone tells the story of how Hedeby was sacked by King Eric from Sweden.  The translation of the inscription is a bit confusing.  What is clear is that Thorulf raised the stone.  Eric, for whom the stone was raised, is memorialized as having been a captain and a good and valiant man and the two men were, apparently, business partners (for this quest, at least).

As best as I can tell, all four of these Runestones are on display at the Hedeby Viking Museum.  You may want to put this on your list of places to visit should you find yourself in northern Germany.  They have set up the Skarði stone to light up as a recorded voice reads its inscription.  I'll leave you with a short video of that.  (Make sure your have the volume up on your computer so you can hear it.)

Image credit: stock photo from http://www.123rf.com

Runes 101 - Runes in History - The Piraeus Lion

Image from Wikipedia

The fact that the Piraeus Lion symbolized Saint Mark (the patron saint of Venice) was of little consequence to the Swedish Vikings, who, in the mid-eleventh century, carved Runes into both of the sitting lion's shoulders.  These weren't just simple runic carvings like we saw at the Borgund Church in Norway.  These were relatively elaborate carvings with one at least being on par with the Ramsund Stone carving in Sweden.

There are two really interesting images of the statue's carvings on a site called Darwaza, which looks at "global design history".  The images on this site show the location of the carvings on the lion and a drawing of the carvings displaying the Runes, which appear to be the younger Futhark.

While the carving on the left shoulder does have a nice curve to it, the engraving on the right shoulder is particularly intricate, in a long swirling dragon.

Although the carvings date to the mid-eleventh century, they went unnoticed until the late 1700s, when Swedish-born diplomat and orientalist Johan David Åkerblad noticed them.  Since their discovery, there have been many attempts to decipher their meaning, but centuries of pollution and weathering (erosion caused by rain, wind and other forces), have made the Runes hard to decipher.

The engravings appear to be an account the whereabouts of those involved in fighting and battles in the region. Even though the Greeks forbade it, at Harold the Tall's request, someone named Asmund "cut these runes".  With him were Thorleif, Thord and Ivar.  That is the left shoulder carving.

The right side is not only more intricate with its dragon shape, but the words being carved into that twisting dragon provide more insight into the events that transpired there.  It appears as though the Asmund, who carved the other runes, helped Hakon, Ulf, and Örn conquer the port.  As a result of their attempt to resist them, these vikings and Harold Hafi (another viking listed as imposing the fine, but not listed as one who secured the port) levied a large fine on the Greek people.  The carving also states that Dalk (presumably another viking) is being held captive in some far off land and Egil and Ragnar are on an exhibition to Romania and Armenia.

These interpretations are from translations by Carl Christian Rafn, who was secretary for the Royal Society of Norse Antiquities.  About sixty years after his translation, in 1914, Erik Brate, a renowned Swedish runologist did his own translation.  Although it does not include all the names and locations as the first, it is considered to be more accurate.  Moreover, this translation claims the Runes were carved in memory of Horsi, a good warrior that won gold in his travels.  Both translations can be found on Wikipedia.

The Piraeus lion is one of four located at the Venetian Arsenal. So, if you're ever there look for the one with Runes carved into its shoulders.  Look carefully, because weathering and pollution have made them difficult to spot, even when you know what you're looking for.  There are also copies of the Piraeus Lion at the Swedish History Museum  in Stockholm and the Piraeus Archeological Museum in Greece.

Runes 101 - Runes in History - Borgund Church

Image from Wikipedia of
the Borgund Church

The Borgund Church in Norway is one of the country's nearly 30 stave churches.  In fact, Norway hosts more stave churches than any other country, including the Urnes stave church, which is a UNESCO world heritage site.

While stave churches are interesting enough simply by virtue of their architecture, there are many carvings (graffiti) covering several hundred years and including pictures, such as stick figures, etched into their wooden walls.  Among these churches, the Borgund Church caught my eye not only because it is the best preserved stave church (according to many sources), but because of some very early graffiti engraved there.

I refer, of course, to runic inscriptions.  At least three runic inscriptions are legible inside the church.  One says only, "Ava Maria."

In his book, Norwegian Runes and Runic Inscriptions, Terje Sperkland identified an inscription that asks god to help others, "May God help everyone who helps me on my journey."

It is the third inscription, however, which I find the most intriguing.  It says, "Thorir carved these runes on the eve of St. Olaf's mass, as he travelled past here. The norns presented measures of good and evil, great toil they created before me."

I found this inscription referenced on three websites, but only one included the second sentence about the Norns.   For me, that sentence is far more interesting than the first, because it indicates that, as late as the end of the 12th or beginning of the 13th century, long after worship of the ancient gods was supposed to have ceased, Thorir was writing about the Norns in a Christian church.  Moreover, he sums them up quite accurately, telling us that they filled his life with good and evil and, it seems, many struggles.

Tiwaz and
Ansuz

In addition to these inscriptions, I also came across a picture of some of the other graffiti that included what looked to me to be a bind Rune.  I recreated the image as best as I could, which appears to consist of two Runes - Tiwaz and Ansuz.  This shows another intrguing potential crossover between the Norse gods and Christianity, because Tiwaz is Tyr's Rune and Ansuz tends to be affiliated with Odin and, at the very least, an ancient Norse god in general.

If you are fortunate enough to visit one of these old churches, enjoy the architecture and history, but make sure to look around for subtle runic inscriptions, which offer their own twist on the experience.

Runes 101 - Runes in Mythology - The Norns

Wyrd Sisters
Image courtesy of Bifrost and Beyond

We know the Norns' basic story as signifying past, present, and future and that Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld are responsible for our wyrd or fate.

While their names are readily applied linguistically to define them (Urd=past, Verdandi=present, Skuld=future), their story in the Norse Mythology makes them much more interesting and complex.

Urd represents the past, but that past is not just our life.  It means everything that happened leading up to the present state of our life.  In other words, our life is shaped by our choices and the influence others have had on it through time.  It also includes our ancestry and the ways in which our heritage or cultural background place us in the world.  A huge infrastructure, of good and bad, worked to make us who we are.

Of course, Urd, representing all of that past experience, brings us to Verdandi, the present or, more specifically, what is happening now.  Just as everything we've done to this moment has made us who we are now, in the current moment, we make choices that affect who we are and which direction we will go as the future arrives.

A very interesting thing occurs at this point in Völuspà , verse 20, where the Norns are introduced. The line immediately following "the second Verdandi" does not introduce Skuld, rather refers to "they" carve on  sticks or cut Runes - Skáru á skiði.  To me, this implies that Urd and Verdanadi cut Runes, which result in Skuld.

The message that I take from this is that our past (all of the parts of the past mentioned above) made us who we are today and that, in turn, will guide us into the future.  Still, Skuld isn't exactly or simply future, rather relates to should or shall be.  Of course, the only things we can know for certain are those things that have happened already and which are happening now.  The future is a mystery.  So, mysterious Skuld may represent what "should be", but as we move into the future, we still have the option to change that path or direction through our choices.  Although the Norns hold our ultimate destiny in their hands, how we arrive there is up to us through our choices and the experiences we make for ourselves.

Going back to "skáru á skiði", think of it like this.  We know our Urd; it has been carved.  We live in our Verdandi; it is being carved.  Although our Skuld is a mystery, our past and present will carve it.

Runes 101- Runes in History - Rune sounds

Over the past few months, I've had two questions posed to me on multiple occasions, so I decided to address them here and hope that this summary helps others who are wondering the same thing.  The questions are:

1.  I want to write my name in Runes; how do I know what sound each Rune makes?
2.  Why did the Runes not become a more prominent writing system, like the Latin alphabet?

To help answer the first question, I created a chart showing the sounds assigned to each Rune.  (It is similar to the chart I created for Rune meanings.)  There are a few interesting Rune sounds to take note of.  For example, Eihwaz, which I wrote about two weeks ago, produces an ei combination sound.  Ingwaz, joins the sound of two consonants - ng.  Although Wunjo looks like our Latin p, it makes the w sound.  And, Jera, although it is j, its sound leans more towards y.

These distinctions are important when writing names, especially for those of you seeking tattoos.  Let me give you a couple of examples.  Let's say you want to get a tattoo to honor the Norse Goddess, Freyja.  Writing that name in Runes would combine the y and j into a single letter, Jera.  So, it would be spelled like this:

One of the Runes I didn't mention above, but which has a duel sound is Thurisaz.  This letter actually evolved in Icelandic as the letter thorn and it makes the th sound as in thumb or Thor.  So, if your name is Theodore, the first two letters would be combine into one.  It would look like this:

Now for the second question.  There are multiple reasons why Runes never became an alphabet like the Latin one we use today and what I provide here is only a summarized overview.  For starters, Runes were made to be carved and their angular shape was easiest to carve into the resources available - wood, bone and antlers - with Runestone engravings coming later, but maintaining the angular aspect.  Because they were designed to be carved, the complicated process used to create such things as papyrus, parchment or vellum was not needed, nor was the requirement to make ink or quills.  Instead, Germanic people used their knives and carved messages onto available resources.  Beyond the requisite equipment, there were no grammar or writing rules;  Rune carvers spelled things phonetically, the way they sounded to them. Rune shapes varied regionally and things were not always written from left two right.  Words, phrases, even sentences could be written right to left and there are boustrophedonic examples as well, where one line reads from left to right and the next lines reads from right to left.  There are more reasons, but this gives you a sense of some of the basic issues around why the Runes never became an alphabet like the Latin one.  The Viking Answer Lady provides some good insight into this issue as well.

If you have more questions about the Runes, whether it's for writing or using them as an oracle, let me know.  I am happy to help.

Runes 101 - Runes in Mythology 9 - Ramsund Runestone

When we think of Runestones, we envision large, erect boulders, etched with runic inscriptions and generally also ornately decorated.  However, there is one Runestone that does not quite fit this image.  It has a runic inscription and is quite ornately carved, but it is not carved into a large boulder, rather into a slab of rock, an outcrop, if you will, in Sweden.  I refer, of course, to the Ramsund stone.

While there are no shortages of Runestones about which I could write, more than 1,700 in Sweden alone, there are at least three aspects of this stone that are of particular interest.  First is the fact that it is carved into a rock outcrop rather than on a standing stone.  For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the Ramsund carving, instead of stone.  Looking at the image to the left, all that is visible on the rock are the glacial striations (scratch lines in the rock) from the Fennoscandia ice sheet that covered the region during the last ice age.

Upon closer look, we see reason number two why this Runestone is so interesting - the runic carving itself.  A woman named Sigurd Ormsdottir (daughter of Orm), had the "bridge" made for her husband Holmgeirr's soul.  It is likely that the bridge relates to Christian influence and the idea of a bridge to heaven or to the next life.  Vikings believed in a next life as evidenced by many Viking ship burials that include all of the things that the person buried would need in his or her next life.  Therefore, they may have found the idea of being able to build a bridge to it quite satisfying.

However, the third reason for writing about this Runestone may be the most intriguing - the imagery that accompanies the inscription.  It shows scenes from the story of Sigurd the dragon slayer.  I won't tell you the details of the story, rather I will point out what each image depicts, and you can consider it enticement for reading the Saga of the Volsungs: the Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer.  The translation this link takes you to was done by my former Old Norse professor at UCLA, Jesse Byock.

Although the scenes from Sigrud's story do not appear in order on the carving, I will go through them from left to right.  The first image shows Reginn, Sigurd's foster father, decapitated among his smithing tools. Above that image and looking a bit like a dog, is Otr, Reginn's brother; he is a shape shifter.  In the third scene, Sigurd is roasting the dragon's heart over a spit.  The horse in the next image belongs to Reginn and it is carrying treasure.  In the tree in the next scene, two birds warn Sigurd that Reginn will betray their reconciliation.  Finally, there is an image, under the runic inscription, actually stabbing it from below.  That is Sigurd killing Fafnir, Reginn and Otr's brother.

The Ramsund stone (or carving) is one of the coolest Runestones I've come across so far.  Which one is your favorite?  If there is one you'd like me to write about, let me know.

Runes 101 - Runes in History 8

In the last Runes 101 post, I wrote about the 1955 Bergen fire.  This time, while I complete etching the Runes on my wooden staves, I thought I would figuratively head to the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and write about the Manx Crosses in general, and one in particular.

The Manx Crosses are actually Runestones, displaying both Celtic and Norse roots and blending early Christian imagery with Celtic/Norse ones.  This group of more than two dozen stones, dates back primarily to the 10th century, the height of the Viking Age.  There had been a long Celtic tradition of raising crosses to the dead (nearly 200 such stones have been found), prior to the Norse influx, but it is with their arrival that the two cultures merged to create some very interesting and artistic works.  For example, where the earlier crosses had wonderful Celtic knots carved into them in a variety of styles, the later ones build on that idea, twisting animals around each other in a similar fashion.

Another interesting aspect to these crosses is that there are multiple styles of Runes used on them.  There are Anglo-Saxon, elder Futhark, and short-twig or staveless Runes found on different crosses, though none together on the same cross, as far as I can tell.  In addition to Runic inscriptions, the first half of the Ogham alphabet appears on one and Ogham letters are visible on both sides of another.

Most of the Manx crosses are carved in memory to someone, a father, a wife, a son or daughter.  Some are dedicated to the person who raised the cross, while others are simply illegible.  At least one cross records a betrayal.

The Manx Cross that interests me the most is one from the Jurby parish in the northwest part of the island.  It is ornately carved (images above and to the right) and includes other ornamentation along with an Old Norse runic inscription:

"[s]on sinn en annan reisti/retti [hann] eptir Thorb" 

The inscription translates into something like the Rune carver has raised a stone for his son and raised another in memory of someone whose name began with Thor - Thorbjorn, Thorvald, etc.

I confess that it is not the inscription that intrigues me about this cross, rather the fact that this cross includes an image of Heimdall, the Norse gods' sentry, who happens to be the main historical character in my novel, The Son of Nine Sisters.   Although Heimdall is carved on this cross, no evidence exists to support the idea that there was ever a culture, tribe or group that worshiped or sacrificed to him.

I believe this image actually supports that idea and represents the call to the beginning of Ragnarök, the final battle of the Norse gods, rather than highlighting Heimdall as a deity.  As you can see in the enlarged image (left), Heimdall is clearly blowing Gjallarhorn to signal the battle's onset.

Across the Irish Sea, in Cumbria, England, another cross (The Gosforth Cross) depicts another Norse image of a god, which has been identified mistakenly as Heimdall, because he holds a horn in one hand while fighting a beast in the other.  I do not believe this is Heimdall, rather, if it is a god, it is Thor killing the Midgard serpent.  That aligns better with the final battle and Thor's own personality as being able to drink enough mead to lower sea level.  Besides, there is no record or story of Heimdall battling anything other than Loki.

Getting back to the Manx Crosses, The Isle of Man Manx National Heritage Museum is a great resource for learning more about these fascinating stones, including having replicas of some of the stones and a database of illustrated images of all the Manx Crosses.

Long ago, I added the Isle of Man to my places to visit.  How about you?  Have you traveled to the Isle of Man?  Did you see any of these crosses?  If so, please share your experience with us.